My Historical Disclaimer
"I make no claims to be an expert in the history of the Celts, or history itself for that matter. This article is based on my impression of Celtic history which was developed from a variety of readings both in print and on the internet. Some of the readings, print and websites, are listed in the bibliography. I visited and read more websites than are listed. Those listed are the most pertinent and informative of the sites."
George McCartney
Celtic Origins
Urnfield People
Archaeologists have identified the earliest direct ancestors of the Celts as the Urnfield people. They originated in southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland around 1000 BC. They earned the name Urnfield because they customarily cremated their dead and placed the ashes in pottery urns that were then buried in organized cemetery-like fields.
These people most probably were farmers and gatherers, living in small communities. What is evident from the buial sites is that they were also skillful metalworkers, making bronze tools, utensils, weapons and rudimentary jewelry. The jewelry was made using an abstract curvilinear form.
The Celts
The people we call the Celts first appeared in southern Germany's Danube basin in approximately 800 BC. Whether they decended from the Urnfield people or moved into the vacinity from anyther place is unclear. They did carry on and improved upon many of the skills and art forms of the Urnfield people.
The Celts spoke an Indo-European language and some think that there may have been a connection with people from the Russian Steppes. The Celts love and respect for horses and their use for transportation, farming and war, which are all similar to the ancestors of the Cossacks who later populated the Steppes, appear to be the basis for this theory. Were the people of the Steppes really ancestors of the Celts? Or, did the Celts learn their horsemanship skill from those people when they met in trade? No clear answer is available at this time.
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Expansion
The Celts expanded from the Danube valley across most of northern Europe. Twelve different nations now occupy areas where they established settlements: Austria, Britain, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Poland, Rumania, Spain, Switzerland and Ukraine. Researchers have also found trade settlements in northern Italy and western Persia.
Archaeologists have used artwork, common language, beliefs and forms of tribal governments to link these communal developments into a loosely organized Celtic nation. Were these a homogeneous people or various smaller tribes that adopted the Celtic culture, by choice or by conquest? There is some question among current archaeological groups. Yet, all of the classical Greek and Roman historians who encountered the Celts, described them as tall, with fair complexion and light hair, usually said to be blond or red. The consistency of the descriptions would seem to indicate a homogeneous people.
The Celtic culture dominated northern Europe for over seven hundred years. in the first century BC, Rome finally defeated the Celts in Gaul (France) and the tribes of the north were absorbed into the Germanic tribes as they expanded southward. This was the end of the Celtic culture on the continent.
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Their Skills
Most people today when asked about the ancient Celts will remember them only as warriors. Since no society can endure by following one skill, it is evident that other skills had to exist in the Celtic culture. From the items found at the various sites, we know that the Celts had developed great skill in a number of areas: working with metals, farming, mining, trading and, of course, fighting.
Metal Working
The Celts continued to develop the metal working skills of their predecessors. Working in bronze and iron, they made tools and weapons that were superior to those used by other people. They even developed metal shield coverings and chain-link armor. Perhaps their most significant developments were the metal wheel rims and iron horseshoes. The wheel rims gave their chariots greater speed and less breakage in both normal travel and military conflicts. The horseshoes protected the horse's hooves from injury, thereby allowing greater endurance and speed to the animals.
They added ornamentation to many of the items they made. Decorative scabbards and sword hilts, bridles and trappings for their horses, even ornate chariots were discovered in some of the burial sites. The artistic style improved upon and added to the curvilinear abstractions used by the Urnfield people. The Celts also used stylized representations of animals. This artistic style adapted well to making jewelry to add decoration to their clothing.
Both men and women used beautiful brooches and clasps for their clothing and belts. These brooches were finely worked metal with semi-precious stones set in enameled backgrounds. Often, the women would style their hair using exquisite combs and clips to hold it in place. The penchant for beauty also extended to the cloth they used for their clothing, woven in intricate colorful patterns.
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Farming
Of course, all of these metalworkers and artisans had to eat. The Celts, like most people of their time, were an agricultural people. In fact, they developed the first organized farming communities with large farm areas around towns that afforded the farmers protection from any raiding parties.
They practiced mixed farming, combining planting and husbandry. A farm would maintain some livestock, which could include cows, sheep, pigs, goats and, possibly, some chickens, while also planting a variety of crops. The most common crops were wheat, barley, oats, rye and peas.
These farmers were not satisfied to just plant and then trust nature to bring in a good crop. The Celtic quest for knowledge and their innovative spirit led them to experiment with crop rotation to prevent depletion of nutrients in the soil and fertilization to replace those nutrients that were lost.
The need for farm tools combined with the skills working with metals and their inquisitive and inventive nature led to the development of new forms of tools that were very advanced for the times. They made iron plows that were, according to Roman records, far superior to those made by the Romans. They developed a mechanized harvester; a wooden cart with blades mounted on the sides. As oxen pushed the cart, the blades cut the crops. The crops were pushed up a ramp and dumped into the cart. Curiously, the harvester was re-invented many centuries later by another Celt, a Scot named John McCormack.
They also developed clippers for shearing the wool from the sheep. Until electric powered shears came along in the early twentieth century, the shears used by sheep ranchers in the United States and Australia showed very little change from those used by the Celts over two thousand years ago.
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Mining
In the year 1734, the body of a man was found in a salt mine near Halstatt, Austria. The man had died in a tunnel collapse many centuries before. The natural preservative characteristics of the salt kept the body in near perfect condition.
About one hundred years after the discovery of the body, when archaeology was just beginning to be recognized as a scientific study, Georg Ramsauer, the managing director of the mine, became interested in the fledgling science. Though self-taught, he followed all of the proper procedures, excavating and documenting over one hundred graves that were part of an extensive Celtic cemetery.
The Celts had mined salt in the Austrian mountains near what is now Salzburg (which means Salt Town) and Halstatt (hal is the Celtic word for salt) for many centuries. Ramsauer's cemetery discovery and additional finds in the mines have given us samples of pick axes and shovels used in the mines. Beside the tools, leather bags for hauling the salt and hardhats have been found that date back to the eighth century BC.
The helmets are made of hardened leather. The leather was soaked in water to make it more pliable. It was then shaped and rubbed with salt. After it dried, the leather was hardened to some degree, but not hard enough to provide much protection. The helmet was painted with a shellac or lacquer. Four or five coats of the lacquer would make the leather quite hard. This same technique was used in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to make helmets for firefighters. (Again, we see the inventiveness of the early Celts providing methods and technology to modern man.)
Because salt is a natural preservative, it was widely used by the contemporaries of the early Celts. The salt that they mined in Austria was a major trade product for the Celts.
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Trading
Celtic expansion was a result of their extensive commerce with other people. The Greeks called them Keltoi, Barbarians, yet they traded regularly with the Celts, exchanging wine for salt and tools. Even though the Romans hated the Celts for sacking Rome, they too traded with them. Roman records indicate that the Celts were considered fair and honest tradesmen.
The Celts used both barter and coinage in their commerce. It is believed that the first Celtic coins were minted in Transylvania, Rumania. Many of these minted coins are considered as works of art and are highly prized by museums and collectors.
We know the Celts expanded as far west as Ireland. The question is "How far east did they travel?" Since trading villages have been found in Persia, we have an eastern boundary. Or do we? Chinese silk has been found in Celtic burial sites. Perhaps they roamed as far as the western boundaries of China.
Many Celtic towns were built along trade routes. Some of them grew and prospered and became the foundations of modern cities such as Budapest, Basel, Orleans, Paris and London.
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Warfare
As was mentioned earlier, most people today only know the Celts as mighty warriors. And, were they ever! They were greatly feared by other people because of their fierceness in battle. They painted their faces and bodies to appear grotesque. They yelled fiercely and gave blood-curdling screams as they attacked. They also used ferocious dogs trained to attack along side them. All of this combined to instill fear in the enemy.
The Celts become great enemies of the Romans when they sacked the city in 390 BC. They stayed only seven months but controlled Rome for forty years. During this period the Roman army, which consisted of normal citizens who only became soldiers when necessary, was disbanded by one of the generals, Caius Marius. Marius recruited professional soldiers. Unlike the citizen army of the past, these men trained as a coordinated fighting machine. This army, under Julius Caesar, would later conquer most of the known world and, after eight years, finally defeat the Celts.
The Celts invaded Greece in the third century BC and sacked Delphi, a city that was not only important, but to some, a holy place.
The Celts were innovative even in war. Usually thought of as a medieval weapon, the lance was used by Celts as early as the seventh century BC. First used as a hunting weapon to kill wild animals from chariots and horseback, the Celts were quick to see the advantage this weapon would have over an infantry unit.
The use of iron wheel rims and horseshoes, which gave the Celts longer range in combat, coupled with the use of the lance made them a formidable enemy. Thus the Celtic Cavalry was born.
These fighters were highly regarded and respected by other armies, to the extent that some Celtic warriors were hired as mercenaries by other countries. The Greeks, Romans (even though they hated the Celts and could not forgive them for sacking Rome) and Egyptians hired Celtic Cavalry.
Quite unusual for the times, women were members of the Celtic armies. The classic Greek and Roman historians have claimed the women fought as strongly and bravely as the men and were their equal in battle.
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Communal/Societal
Communities
The ancient Greek city of Troy, considered a major metropolis of the time, was only five acres. It was so small that its location was lost for centuries. Celtic communities varied in size. Some were probably smaller than Troy, But some were extremely large.
The town called Maiden Castle, in Dorset, England, covered forty-five acres. It was nine times larger than Troy, while the community at Stanwick, England was 850 acres: 170 times larger than Troy. Only part of the town was walled, so part of the acreage was probably devoted to farming.
At Babracte, near Autun, France, the town was only 350 acres, but it was fully walled. Its population has been estimated at three hundred thousand souls.
One of the oldest communities to be excavated is the hill fort at Danebury, Hampshire, England, which is 2500 years old. The Oxford University archaeological team that excavated Danebury said it was "A picture of Celtic society that is every bit as rich as the cultures of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome"
Government
While a loose confederation of Celtic people spread out over most of northern Europe, there was a consistency among them. The language, religion and government were the same. A Celt traveling from one city to another would have no trouble understanding the customs and laws of the new area.
The government consisted of an aristocracy and a tribal counsel. Membership on the counsel was not limited to the aristocracy, but was open to every person in the community. (We assume there was a minimum age.) In democratic fashion, members were elected to the counsel.
Women enjoyed equal rights with men. They were allowed voices in and membership on the counsel. Some rose to be leaders of the community. The equality extended to the military service, as well, where they fought as fiercely as the men did.
Women were allowed to own property in their own right. When they married, any property they owned remained theirs. It did not revert to the husband as it did in most societies of the time.
Obviously, the Celts had great respect for women. Some historians believe that this respect gave rise to the concept of chivalry.
Social
Strangely enough, though fierce warriors, the Celts were a very social people. They welcomed strangers, who were then invited to share food even before they were asked who they were or why they were there. They enjoyed great feasts at which huge quantities of food and drink would be consumed. Usually, the aristocracy would sponsor the feasts as a means of sharing with the rest of the community.
Even though they loved to eat and drink, it was a disgrace punishable by heavy fines to get fat. It was customary to keep fit. One could not be a good fighter if the body was not strong. Regular exercise and hard work were daily requirements.
The Celts traded with the Romans and Greeks for wine, but made their own beer and meade. Today beer is brewed in almost every country worldwide; meade, a honey-based wine, until recently was only distilled in Ireland.
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Religion
Druids
The Greek word drus and the Sanskrit word druh both mean oak. The Indo-European root wid means to have knowledge of something. Either the Greek or the Sanskrit words can be combined with the Indo-European root to create a new word that means "knowledge of the oak". The new word is druid. And, the oak tree was, to the Druids, symbolic of life. The Celts were Druids.
Aristotle, writing in 4th century BC, was the first to mention the druidic religion. Other Greek and Roman historians credit the Druids as having great knowledge in subjects as diverse as moral philosophy, natural science, Pythagorean calculations, astrology and geography.
Julius Caesar wrote that Druids had knowledge of the stars and their motion and the size of the world and the earth. He admired their knowledge and organization. He also feared that organization and was afraid the Druids would unit the various clans. He felt that he could not have defeated a united Celtic army. Therefore, in the 2nd century BC, Caesar annihilated the druidic religion.
Druid priests were intellectual and inquisitive. They sought knowledge in everything. They also had to have extremely good memories. It was traditional to commit the entire Druidic religious teachings to memory and pass them on orally. Much of the druidic teachings were stated in verse to make them easier to remember. Even though they relied upon memory to pass on their religion, Druid priests were learned men. Many could read and write both Greek and Latin.
Beliefs
Immortality was a major tenet of druidic belief. That they believed in life after death is evident in the supplies that were buried with their dead; supplies that would help them in the after-life. Jewelry, tools, weapons, horse bridals and tack, even chariots have been found in Celtic graves. They may have buried horse equipment, but no evidence has been found to indicate that horses were buried. Perhaps, they believed that horses would be available in the after-life or, maybe, they just loved horses too much to sacrifice them that way.
There were four major druidic holidays throughout the year; one is still celebrated today. Imbolc was the feast of renewal and purification and was celebrated on 1 February. Beltaine was celebrated on 1 May by offering prayers for a bountiful harvest in the face of harsh northern weather. Almost every ancient religion had a feast or rite of fertility. The Druids were no exception. On 1 August, they celebrated Lugnasad, their festival of fertility.
The fourth holiday is the one still celebrated today. Samain was dedicated to the gods of the underworld and the spirits of the dead. On 31 October, the spirits of the deceased would visit the living. Apparently, these spirits were not benign but would cause mischief if not appeased. The people would leave food outside the door for them in the hope that they would be satisfied and not harm the family inside. Today we celebrate it as Halloween and when children go from door to door asking for treats, they unknowingly, imitate the spirits the Celtic ancestors were trying to mollify.
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Decline
On the Continent
In the 1st century BC, Julius Caesar and his legions from Rome vanquished the Celtic civilization on the continent. As powerful as the legions were, it took Caesar 8 years to conquer the Celts in Gaul (France) and then he only did so by using a "divide and conquer" strategy. Though they were all Celts, spoke the same language and held similar beliefs, many Celtic tribes would fight against each other. Infringements of one tribe on another's land or livestock, personal insult between tribes, or, basically, any human misunderstanding could set off a feud.
These feuds abetted the defeat of the Celtic clans of Gaul by Caesar. Some tribes fought alongside the legions against tribes they were feuding with while other tribes did nothing to interfere. This gave Caesar the opportunity to defeat the tribes one at a time. It was also the reason he had to destroy the druidic religion.
Caesars greatest fear of the Druids was that they would unite the clans. Their philosophical unity gave them great sway over the clans and they could have had an influence on them that would have been disastrous for Rome. Had the tribes united under a strong leader, the Romans might not have been victorious and the face of Europe might have changed drastically.
In Britain
Approximately a hundred years after Caesar defeated the Celts in Gaul, in the year 43 Ad. Claudius, emperor of Rome, ordered an invasion of Britain. Britain was still a Celtic stronghold at that time. His legions used the same divide and conquer strategy that Caesar used in Gaul. There were fourteen separate Celtic kingdoms in Britain. Again, the Romans feared that the Druids could unite the fourteen tribes so they systematically killed all of the priests. Even so, it took over 40 years to subdue the British Celts
Still They Survived
The Roman legions that conquered Britain never defeated the Scots to the north. The Scots would raid Roman communities in the northern portion of England causing great commotion and loss of property and life. To stop the devastating raids by the Scots, the Romans built a wall across the island - it is known as Hadrian's Wall. For more information about Hadrian's Wall, visit their website at http://www.hadrians-wall.org/.
Romans never conquered the west coast of Britain, particularly Cornwall and Wales, nor did they travel to Ireland. These areas have a distinct Celtic influence today. However, the remaining Druids in Britain and Ireland were converted to Christianity by the 4th century AD. In Ireland, the great intellectual interests of the Druids continued. Monastic orders were founded and monasteries were built throughout Ireland. The monks continued the tradition of gathering knowledge. Their record keeping and writing was not restricted to Christian religious topics. True, the scribes made copies of the bible, but they also recorded much of the information that had previously been the realm of the Druid priests. The Irish monks recorded many of the legends and stories of Celtic life and history.
Back to the Continent
Rome eventually fell to invasions from the Goths and Visigoths bringing in the Dark Age. Monks from Ireland returned to the continent, bringing with them their accumulated knowledge and teachings. This would be the beginnings of a different type of conquest for the descendants of the Celts.
These Irish monks established monasteries, schools and libraries throughout Europe and brought the intellectual and religious teachings back to the continent.
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Bibliography
I highly recommend the five books listed below. If you only have time to read one or two, I would suggest Kevin Duffy's "Who Were The Celts?". He has a writing style that is easy and relaxed, yet informative. The book is a general history that covers every aspect of these great people. The second is James Bonwick's "Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions". This book may be hard to find, but it is well worth looking for.
Regarding the websites, I have visited many that dealt with the Celts. Some were good, some were excellent and some were not worth the time to type their URL's. I'm sure there are many out there that I haven't visited. Many of those may be great. I'm sorry I can't visit them all. A few of the better sites I have visited are listed below. Hopefully, they are still active. Sites come and go so quickly. If you encounter a bad link please contact me.
I don't agree with everything in these books or on these sites and I'm sure the authors won't agree with everything I have presented here. The books are worth reading and the sites are worth visiting. Enjoy your reading and form your own opinions.
Printed Texts
Bieler, Ludwig; Ireland: Harbinger of the Middle Ages, Harper and Row. 1973
Bonwick, James; Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions, Dorset Press, 1986
Cahill, Thomas; How the Irish Saved Civilization, Anchor Books, 1996
Webmaster's note: The Irish were the
western-most celtic settlements. They were one of the few groups
to not be affected by the "Dark Ages".
Duffy, Kevin; Who Were The Celts?, Heritage Books Inc., Barnes & Noble edition, 1999
Raftery, Barry; Pagan Celtic Ireland, Thames and Hudson, 1994
Websites
Celtis Wanderings: Who Were The Celts
Who were the Celts? The Celts were a group of peoples that occupied lands
stretching from the British Isles to Galatia.
Celtic History
The history of the Celtic people is quite a long one, ranging from the
initial tribes of Celts back in Sigmar's time to the present day.
History and Warfare: The Celts
The history of the Celtic people goes back many centuries. The Celts
transmitted their culture orally, never writing down
history or facts.
Earth Mysteries: Druids
...Druids have been identified as wizards and soothsayers, in pre-Christian
Celtic society they formed an intellectual class comprising philosophers,
judges, educators, historians, doctors, seers, astronomers and astrologers.
Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall ran for 73 miles across open country. Why was it built?
Hadrian's Wall, A gallery of images
Hadrian's Wall was a Roman frontier built in the years AD 122-30 by order of
the Emperor Hadrian....
Transformations of Celtic Mythology in Arthurian Legend
Arthurian legend is the mixture of countless individuals over some 1500
years. The myth may have a basis in fact; it is certainly possible that an
historical King Arthur did indeed exist in the sixth century A.D.
